Implement measures that prevent/manage desertification, soil erosion and landslides

Danang, a prosperous port city in Central Vietnam, is home to a population of 1.2 million inhabitants. Throughout the years, the city went through several boats of urbanization, which allowed its economy to thrive but its environment to be negatively impacted. The city's green areas were reduced, leading to socioeconomic and environmental impacts, including loss of landscape and more energy consumption. (4) Furthermore, the city became vulnerable to natural disasters, which caused destruction and uprooting of trees and vegetation and aggravated soil erosion. (3,4)
To counteract many of these issues, the municipality of Danang initiated several greening activities that included the creation of parks, the greening of street alleys, and the greening of schoolyards as a supporting mechanism for one of Vietnam's nationwide programmes "Plant 1 billion trees in the 2021 - 2025" (5). Recently, the municipality planted 900 Than Mat trees (one of the typical flowering plants of Son Tra Peninsula and scientifically known as Millettia nigrescens Gagnep) along the route from Green Lake to Bai Bac, in the Tho Quang ward, in February 2023. The activity also aims to have an educational role as tree protection is highlighted and build a clean and green city environment (6).
So far, as of February 2023, as part of the 1 billion tree programme, 15,000 trees have been planted in Danang. (2)

The ‘City of 1,000 Tanks’ project offers a holistic solution to the problems of floods, water scarcity and pollution in Chennai (Ref. 1). The project's primary objective is to develop a "Water Balance Model" for the city, which involves collecting rainwater, treating wastewater and runoff pollution with decentralized nature-based solutions, as well as prevent climate-change-induced droughts and saline intrusion due to sea-level rise (Ref. 1, 2). This is achieved through developing various nature-based water management solutions and improving the recharge capacity of traditional temple tanks (Ref 1).
The project began in 2018, following the call for action event of the "Water as Leverage for Resilient Cities Asia" (a bilateral program spanning several Asian countries). The Water Balance Model is developed as a strategy with an incremental implementation process (Ref 1, 2). The project started with pilot projects and then progressed to flagship projects before full city-wide implementation (Ref. 3).

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and its partners collaborated in 2018 to develop an ecosystem restoration project in the Rohingya Camps of Ukhiya, near Cox's Bazar. The main objective of this project was to mitigate the increased risk of landslides, slope instability, and flooding caused by flash floods and the vicinity of the Bakkhali River. The intervention included the planting of quickly growing native trees, shrubs, and grass species. Additionally, the project encompassed other measures such as vegetable cultivation on stream beds, biological soil stabilization methods, and plant-based wastewater treatments. To ensure the sustainability of the project, a network of future practitioners from the Bangladeshi and Rohingya communities was created. Moreover, environmental education and awareness activities were undertaken to complement the efforts of the project, with a particular focus on engaging young people from both the host and refugee communities to maximize its impact. The area where the project was implemented has been significantly affected by land and forest degradation over the last few decades, which has been exacerbated since the arrival of Rohingya refugees in 2017. Therefore, the project also involved other stakeholders such as the International Center for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Danish Refugee Council, the World Food Programme, the International Organization for Migration, and the Bangladesh government, each contributing in various capacities to achieve the project's objectives. (1,2,3,4)

Vinh is the biggest city in north-central Vietnam and is the hub for economic and cultural development in the region. As of 2018, the city has a population of approx. 500,000 inhabitants and is located on the Ca River delta, 160 miles (260 km) south of Hanoi. Flooding and poor environmental sanitation are major impediments to the development of Vinh City. The drainage system of the city is comprised of four catchment basins connected to Rao Dung, Ke Gai, Vinh and Lam Rivers. Among the four, the Vinh River is flowing through the central wards and communes of Vinh City and is one that becomes sensitive to severe flooding events frequently (2,3).
Recently (in 2021), with support from the World Bank, the government initiated a program, the Vinh City Priority Infrastructure and Urban Resilience Development Project (VPIUR), which is expected to bring a new look to the river, reduce the risk of flooding in urban areas and strengthen urban management capacity to adapt to climate change. This project has several sub components and one of them is a river rehabilitation and upgrade under the form of riverbank green, sanitation, and flood risk management (1, 3).
The implementation includes a comprehensive set of structural and non-structural interventions, including flood control systems and nature-based solutions, wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure, and key transport links. The project aims to transform it into green public spaces which are to be constructed under the project. The project also aims to invest in developing green public spaces along the Vinh riverbank and a new regulation lake. (3)

The "Urban Forest" project focused on the establishment of the Mongolian-Korean Friendship Forest on a 40-hectare land in Dambadarjaa, Sukhbaatar district of the capital city, Ulaanbaatar. Previously known as the Forest Research and Development Center Arboretum Park, this area has a river running through it. The project, with a total cost of over 8 million EUR, was designed specifically to reduce air pollution in the capital, to create a healthy eco-environment for Ulaanbaatar residents to spend their leisure time and to raise awareness of the importance of forests and the benefits of trees in Mongolia. In total, 55,000 trees and shrubs of 36 different species were planted so far and the park boasts five different types of coniferous trees that thrive in Mongolia, including larch, pine, abies, cedar, and spruce, as well as deciduous trees such as birch, aspen, willow, lilac, and maple. The Urban Forest park also includes several facilities, such as a visitor information center, a playground, sport facilities, a natural arboretum and a ground fountain. The park will be operational and accessible to the public in 2023. The project was implemented between 2017 and 2022, as the second phase of the Korea-Mongolia Greenbelt Reforestation Initiative jointly developed by the Mongolian Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and the Korea Forest Service (KFS). The Green Belt initiative was created with the overall aims to mitigate desertification, combat climate change, and reduce yellow dust and sandstorms in Mongolia.
(Ref. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

Since 2012, the Municipality of Ipoh continued the revitalization and rehabilitation of the D.R. Seenivasagam Recreational Park (TDRS) under the Malaysian National Urbanisation Policy, which suggests that for every 1,000 inhabitants, there should be public green open spaces of 2 ha. Through this intervention, the Ipoh municipality tried to address several sustainability challenges, which are usually a result of the lack of green open spaces. Some of the challenges addressed were the urban heat island effect, soil erosion resulting from improper drainage, and noise pollution. Ultimately, the municipality aimed to provide a convenient setting for a variety of leisure and recreational activities in addition to enhancing the civic values of the community. The intervention consisted of several tree-planting actions organized by the Ipoh Council in collaboration with the Perak Government (a Malaysian state that has its capital in Ipoh).
D.R. Seenivasagam Recreational Park was built in the 1950s and is one of the largest urban parks in Ipoh. It has become a favourite among locals as well as an example of good practice for integrating green open spaces in addressing sustainability challenges over the years. Located in the vicinity of the Kinta River, during the early days of its opening, it was a mini botanical garden which eventually transitioned to a full-scale park, one of not too many in Ipoh. The park also includes a lake with wooden bridges that contributes to the diversity and habitat of the place. The DR Park, as it is known to the locals, has entertained many families for more than 25 years, starting as a mini-theme park during its formative years, much to the delight of many children. To date, the park has remained a popular spot with abundant greenery and attractions, an oasis within Ipoh’s city life. (1,2,3,4)

As part of the Green Pakistan Programme (GPP), the Ministry of Environment of Pakistan initiated a plantation drive on the Margalla Hills, threatened by climate change, droughts, floods and deforestation. Margalla Hills National Park (MHNP) is a national park of Pakistan located in the capital city, Islamabad. It was established in the 1980s with a total area of about 173 square kilometres constituting Margalla Hills, Shakarparian Park, Rawal Lake and the Cultural Complex (2,5). The primary purpose of GPP was to protect the environment and revive forests, as Pakistan is a forest-deficient country having 5.01 per cent of its total area under forest cover. The park is under the supervision of the Islamabad Wildlife Management Board (IWMB) which ensures the management, maintenance and preservation of wildlife and other species in the park vicinity. The campaign was set to take place over 5 years between 2017-2022. Furthermore, as part of the same program, an awareness campaign was started to generate knowledge about plants and make Islamabad green and beautiful. Thousands of people visit the national park daily to enjoy the natural environment and healthy recreational facilities and relax by looking at the serene landscape and natural viewpoints of the city visible from the different trails of the park. (1,2,3,4,5)

The Central Forest Corridor surrounds the capital of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, and provides various ecosystem services to the population, with a particular emphasis on providing water for communities within both the corridor and Tegucigalpa (Ref. 3). However, limited access to water is common across Honduras, attributed to the degradation of watersheds as a result of deforestation and pollution of both ground and surface water (Ref. 1). Climate scenarios further "indicate that existing water scarcity will be exacerbated by climate change and increasing variability"... with "the main urban areas (Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula) and several agricultural areas (Patuca basin)...fac[ing] increased water scarcity in the near future" (Ref. 1).

South Africa is struggling to provide services to the millions of poor people migrating to the major centres and living in informal settlements (shanty towns), built on land that was formerly used for agriculture or pasturage. Vegetation is sparse and the open spaces between the houses are generally of beaten earth. These areas face persistent challenges that undermine health and everyday well-being and increased disaster risk due to their poor design and lack of green infrastructure. Moreover, informal settlements are very vulnerable to flooding events, which affect the quality of life of the people living in them. Such a case is Diepsloot, a settlement in Johannesburg, where a team of researchers implemented a sustainable urban drainage system with the purpose of alleviating poor water infrastructure and addressing issues related to land erosion and environmental degradation. This research has been benefiting from the support of the local population through adaptive co-management and joint implementation of the intervention. (1,2)

The Rioni River basin is the second largest in Georgia, originating in the Greater Caucasus range and flowing into the Black Sea, traversing the town of Samtredia. Samtredia has been affected directly on many occasions by floods that have become a current occurrence in the Rioni River basin as of late. The underlying causes of vulnerability to climate change in the Rioni basin can be categorised into 1) physical factors –direct manifestations of climate change, 2) factors caused by anthropogenic intervention – those related to the harmful ways in which humans have and continue to interact with the environment which has exacerbated vulnerability and 3) Institutional factors – related to the legislative/regulatory barriers placed by government and other institutions, as well as limited capacity (human and resources) to manage climate change vulnerability. Flooding has been harmful not only to the local population but also to the biodiversity of the area, which suffered losses and an ecological imbalance and a disruption in the habitat patterns of local fauna. Many of these issues became the focal point of an activity developed by the Adaptation Fund alongside the Georgian government as early as 2012. The intervention stretched for 4 years and involved several localities in the Rioni River Basin, including Samtredia municipality, consisting of creating bank terracing, vegetative buffers, and tree revetments in order to address floods related to the Rioni River basin and the localities it traverses. (1,2)